## The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Aviator and the Weather Bureau

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Aviator and the Weather Bureau

Author: Ford A. Carpenter

Release date: July 4, 2018 [eBook #57443]

Language: English

Credits: E-text prepared by ellinora, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AVIATOR AND THE WEATHER BUREAU ***

#### E-text prepared by ellinora, Charlie Howard,
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
(http://www.pgdp.net)
from page images generously made available by
Internet Archive
(https://archive.org)

Note: | Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See https://archive.org/details/aviatortheweathe00carpiala

Army Airplane Gliding to North Island over
U. S. Cruiser “San Diego”

# The Aviator and the
Weather Bureau

BY
FORD A. CARPENTER, LL.D.
Meteorologist

ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS AND CHARTS
BY THE AUTHOR AND OTHERS

PUBLISHED BY THE
SAN DIEGO CHAMBER OF COMMERCE
1917

Published by permission
Dated August 25, 1916
Second edition, 5,000 copies

J. Horace McFarland Company
Mt. Pleasant Press
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

3

## Introductory Note

This is a brief but general account of the history of aviation as it is associated with southern California, a description of the War Department school of aviation at San Diego, a syllabus of the course of lectures delivered there on the subject of practical meteorology as applied to aviation, a narrative of weather-study from an airplane, and a recital of subsequent active coöperation between the aviators and the U. S. Weather Bureau.A

A It may be remembered that the weather service of the United States originated with the Signal Corps of the Army and that the Weather Bureau was created from it by Act of Congress, June, 1891, and made a bureau of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. As a former member of the Signal Corps the writer enjoyed the renewal of old friendships among the officers at the Aviation School. Col. W. A. Glassford, Signal Corps, U. S. Army, Commandant of the War Department Aviation School at San Diego, kindly read the manuscript of the following pages and the writer gratefully acknowledges his valuable suggestions.

Much of the material in the following pages was obtained by the writer while detailed as Lecturer in Meteorology to the Signal Corps, War Department Aviation School at San Diego, in 1915–1916, also when detailed in the same official capacity to the U. S. Army Military Training Encampment, Monterey, 1916; and at the summer sessions of the University of California during 1914–1916.

Los Angeles, Cal.,
February, 1917.

4

To
J. S. A.

5

## Table of Contents

6

## List of Plates

Figure No. |  | Page
| Army airplane gliding to North Island Over U. S. Cruiser “San Diego” | Frontispiece
1. | Congressional Medal awarded Wright brothers | 33
2. | Ascent of sounding balloons at Avalon | 34
3. | Meteorograph which made the ascent of July 27, 1913 | 35
4. | First flight of airplane carrying two persons | 36
5. | Sub-station at Mount Wilson Observatory | 37
6. | Type of airplane used in 1911 on North Island | 38
7. | Discussing a flight | 39
8. | Captain Culver and parachute for determining wind-direction | 40
9. | Lieutenant Gorrell, U. S. Infantry, as observer | 41
10. | Point Loma from the eastern shore of North Island | 42
11. | San Diego, across Spanish Bight, from U. S. Aviation School, at twilight | 43
12. | Instructor Brindley and Meteorologist Carpenter in Military Tractor No. 50 | 44
13. | Military Tractor No. 50 | 45
14. | “Trimming” Tractor No. 50 | 46
15. | Military Tractor No. 50 just before leaving the ground | 47
16. | San Diego harbor at over two thousand feet altitude | 48
17. | San Diego viewed from an altitude of thirty-five hundred feet | 49
18. | Military Tractor No. 50 viewed from the ground | 50
19. | Flying Squad’s Wind Direction Pennant Tower | 51
20. | The Aviation School Motor-Boat “Pronto” | 52
21. | U. S. Aviation Field at three thousand feet altitude | 53
22. | Repair Shop, U. S. Aviation School, San Diego, Cal. | 54

7

## The Aviator and the
Weather Bureau

## CHAPTER I
THE SIGNAL CORPS AVIATION SCHOOL AT SAN DIEGO

History.—The year 1911 marked the beginning of the United States aviation school at San Diego. There is no finer tribute to the equability and general excellence of the climate of southern California than that given in the history of aëronautics. It was here, in 1900, that Chanute completed his early and epoch-making observations of the flight of gulls and pelicans. These contributed largely to the success of the Wright brothers a few years afterward. It was in southern California, six years ago, that Harkness, in an Antoinette, made his record monoplane flight to Tia Juana. San Diego witnessed the flying of the first seaplane, by Curtiss, five years ago. It is in this district that not only the War Department aviation school and a number of commercial flying schools are located, but also one of the large airplaneB factories in this country.

B The National Advisory Committee for Aëronautics in its report of October 17, 1916, on Nomenclature for Aëronautics, the name airplane is substituted for “Any form of aircraft heavier than air which has wing surfaces for sustention, with stabilizing surfaces, rudders for steering, and power-plant for propulsion through the air.”

Location of the School.—Whatever the final action may be as to permanent location, it has been conceded8 by all authorities that the situation of the aviation school on North Island, San Diego Bay, is ideal. (See Fig. 21.) The so-called island is connected with the peninsula of Coronado by a narrow sand-spit, and it comprises many hundred acres of level land free from buildings and any sort of overhead wires. The island fronts the ocean on the south; Point Loma on the west with the narrow entrance to the bay between; to the north is the city of San Diego across the bay; and Coronado just beyond Spanish Bight on the east. This natural arrangement gives good air conditions for beginners, and also enables them to use the smooth waters of the bay as well as the rough ocean water for the seaplanes. The proximity of this location to San Diego is also a distinct advantage. (See Fig. 11.) All of the structures of the aviation school on North Island are temporary, the buildings consisting of a scattering array of huge sheds.

Character of Instruction.—Officers from all branches of the army volunteer for this service. The qualifications of an aviator are caution, judgment, and technical skill. Deficiencies in caution and judgment being temperamental are rarely remedied, while technical skill is largely a matter of acquirement. Less than ninety days are allowed for qualification as a junior aviator, and if in that period the officer’s deficiencies are found to be inherent, he returns to his company.

The school is a place for hard work and quick thinking. Detail in the repair shop is part of the course, as is also the use of the gasoline engine in motor trucks as well as in aircraft. (See Fig. 22.) Theory and practice are closely united: the former is9 carried on by means of bi-daily lectures, while the early morning hours are devoted to flying. Pilot-and-observer machines equipped with double control are used in instruction. The aviation instructor ascends with the student and allows him to manipulate the controls, only resuming the management of the airplane in an emergency. Needless to say, the life of an instructor is a most hazardous one and full of thrills. His duty is to be on the alert to correct errors in the manipulation of the machine. After every trip the instructor reviews, point by point, the features of the flight, showing the pupil his deficiencies and explaining how he may avoid them in the future. The instruction is terse but kindly, and the manner of imparting this information leaves nothing to the imagination. After watching student and instructor, and closely studying the finished work of an aviator, it is my opinion that in no other occupation must there be such perfect coördination between mind and muscle: the perfectly qualified aviator is the modern super-man.C

C The army aviator of today is picked for his quickness of mind and body, and the first thing that strikes you about him is a sort of feline, wound-up-spring alertness. Then you note his reticence, the cool reserve of a man whose lot is to express himself in deeds rather than words. And, lastly, there is the quiet seriousness, verging almost on sadness, of a man who must hold himself ready to look death between the eyes at any moment and yet keep his mind detached for other things.—Lewis R. Freeman in the Atlantic Monthly.

Results of a Year’s Work.—During the year 1915, the students of the aviation school made 3,652 flights with a total time aloft of 1,516 hours, and a mileage of 95,000. As regards weather conditions affecting flights, it will be found interesting to note Chart No. 5 giving number of flights and duration for the fourteen months ending August, 1916, which shows that work progressed regardless of10 weather, and at an increasing rate.D In February, a military tractor-seaplane (an all-California product), 125-horsepower motor, with twenty-six gallons of gasoline, four gallons of oil, and three passengers, making a total weight of 3,100 pounds, reached an altitude of 12,362 feet. This was the world’s record, the previous altitude under the same conditions having been 9,000 feet.

D “It is estimated that the average cost to France of training each pilot is five thousand dollars ... no less than from four to six months are devoted to the training of finished pilots. Although I have just come from France, the progress of aviation is so rapid that much of my own knowledge may be out of date before I again return to the front.”—C. D. Winslow, “With the French Flying Corps,” 1917, 4–5: N. Y.

11

## CHAPTER II
APPLIED METEOROLOGY FOR THE AVIATOR

Activities of the Weather Bureau in Relation to Aëronautics.—Naturally the progress of aërial navigation has at all times been rather closely connected with the Weather Bureau. For over a decade the Bureau has not been content with surface observations but has maintained laboratories for the study of the upper air. The results of its observations are considered a mine of information for the student aviator. Prof. Charles F. Marvin, the Chief of the Weather Bureau, is a member of the National Advisory Committee for Aëronautics, and chairman of a subcommittee engaged on the determination of the problems of the atmosphere in relation to aëronautics.E

E Monthly Weather Review, 1915, 32:500. Washington.

The first official coöperation between the Weather Bureau and the War Department aviation school was inaugurated in the year 1914 by Dr. W. J. Humphreys, Professor of Meteorological Physics, when he was detailed to give a course of lectures. It was during this course that he lectured on “Holes in the Air.”F This paper has been reprinted as a textbook for the aviation school.

F Popular Science Monthly, 1914, 44:18–34, N. Y.

Early Studies in Aëronautics.—Unofficially, however, the coöperation extended back some fifteen years prior to that time, when the writer was in charge of the local office of the Weather Bureau at San Diego, and assisted the aëronautical engineer,12 Octave Chanute, in his observations and experiments on San Diego Bay.G At this time hundreds of photographs of sea-gulls, pelicans, and other soaring birds were made, and both birds and photographs studied and analyzed. Ever since then more or less interest has been taken by the writer in aërial navigation. During an assignment to the Central Office the work of the Wright brothers was observed and studied. The association with the late Octave Chanute and his friends, the Wrights, during their experimental flights at Fort Meyer, Virginia, in September, 1908, is counted among the many pleasant memories of the Washington visit. It was here that was witnessed the first flight with a passenger (see Fig. 4), Mr. Orville Wright taking up with him Major (now Colonel) George O. Squier, the present head of the aviation branch of the army. Such was the infancy of the flying-machine that at that date no fatalities had occurred. A few years later the writer had the pleasure of accompanying Mr. Glenn Curtiss while he was determining a site for his school, which was finally located on North Island. (See Fig. 6.) Shortly afterward, from this place, Harry Harkness made record amateur cross-country flights in an Antoinette monoplane.

G “Climate and Weather of San Diego,” Carpenter, 1913, 57–59, San Diego.

Active Work of the Weather Bureau.—During the score of years that the writer has been in charge of the San Diego and Los Angeles stations of the Weather Bureau, interest in flying has been cumulative. Efforts have been made to furnish aviators with available data so that at the present time a day seldom passes without conference With officials or13 students of Government or private flying schools in this vicinity.

Lectures on Meteorology as Applied to Aviation.—Through the War Department, October, 1915, on request of the commanding officer of the Signal Corps aviation school, at San Diego, the writer was directed by the Chief of the Weather Bureau to deliver two lectures of which the following are outlines:

### “What the Weather Bureau Offers the Aviator”

(Illustrated by 37 lantern-slides from photographs by the author)

- Introductory:
- Weather service once part of the Signal Corps, U.S.A.
- Transfer in 1891 to the Department of Agriculture.
- Distribution of weather stations in the United States:
- Character of data obtainable:
- Advance data from the daily map such as
- Position of high and low areas.
- Weather conditions from sub-stations in vicinity.
- The weather map:
- How constructed.
- How distributed.
- Specimen maps showing differing conditions in California.
- Winds, velocity and frequency:
- On-shore.
- Off-shore.
- Discussion of air conditions December 20–22, 1914.
- The international weather map.
- Relation to weekly forecasts.
- Cardinal climatic features:
- Ascending winds and types producing them:
- Cloud, fog, precipitation.
- Descending winds:
- “Northers” and dust-storms.
- Thermograph and hygrograph traces.
- Factors in the meteorology of southern California:14
- Influence of latitude:
- Sea.
- Mountains.
- Desert.
- Path and distribution of storm areas.
- Knowledge of local climatology necessary in flying.
- Local winds discussed:
- “Woollies” (descending wind eddies).
- “Chubascos” (south coast thunder squall).
- “Santa Anas” (northeasterly and desiccating).
- “Wilmingtons” (northwesterly line-squall).

### “Practical Meteorology for the Aviator”

(Illustrated by 72 lantern-slides from photographs by the author)

- Historical:
- Original work begun in Scotland, year 1749.
- Characteristics—
- English work; Dines’ minute meteorograph.
- French work; Dr. Berson’s balloon ascent of 6½ miles.
- German work; detailed data in low altitudes.
- American work began with Franklin.
- The Upper Air:
- Definition:
- “Stratosphere” is (according to some authorities) the dynamical laboratory of the atmosphere where the main causes of pressure originate.
- Results in America:
- Balloon meteorograph (Fig. 3).
- Charts showing rate of increase in wind velocity with elevation (Chart No. 4).
- Wind, temperature, pressure, humidity at maximum airplane height of 26,242 feet.
- Stratosphere:
- Lower level in winter than in summer.
- Lower temperature in summer when surface pressure is high.
- Definition:
- “Troposphere” is the physical laboratory where cloud and rain are produced by local causes and induced by the effect of the dynamical changes in the upper air.
- Conditions within 6 or 7 miles of the earth’s surface.
- Clouds and their Meaning:15
- Cirrus:
- Height and composition.
- Formation:
- Perpendicular shafts of clouds indicate rapid changes in weather.
- Horizontal layers, no change and clouds will dissipate.
- Cirro-stratus, threatening in winter.
- Cirro-cumulus, fair and foul varieties differentiated.
- Cumulus with strong uplift.
- Alto-cumulus, cause of parallel rows.
- Fracto-cumulus, wind indicator, Point Loma “woolly.”
- Stratus.
- Alto-stratus, favorable for flying.
- Strato-cumulus, long shallow rolls, threatening in winter.
- Cumulo-nimbus, unsafe air conditions for flying.
- Fracto-nimbus, waterspouts and their causes.
- Velo cloud, examples, cause, effect, distribution, density.
- Fog, examples of great fog-belts.

16

## CHAPTER III
NARRATIVE OF WEATHER OBSERVATIONS FROM AN AIRPLANE

In order to qualify as meteorologist competent to confer with aviators, it seemed desirable to become personally acquainted with some of the conditions that confronted them. As a matter of professional acquirement therefore, I was glad to accept an invitation to go aloft after the necessary official arrangements had been made with Washington.

This trip was in line with the previous endeavors of applying practical meteorology to the science of flight and appropriately extended the work which was begun in San Diego with Chanute and the sea-gulls fifteen years before.

Object of Flight.—I wished to put myself in the student’s place and learn at first hand the practical facts he demanded from weather observations and to acquaint myself with everything possible that might be of value to an aviator. There were two definite things of which I desired knowledge: first, to determine the height of the upward trend of the sea-breeze over Point Loma which causes the mysterious “woolly” of a score of years’ acquaintance from a yachting standpoint; second, to observe the extent, form, and composition of the velo cloud which is the characteristic sun-cover of California.

Preparations for the Ascent.—Aviator Instructor Oscar Brindley (the 1915 winner of the Curtiss trophy), in military tractor No. 50, was assigned17 as pilot. It may be stated here that the accepted definition of aviator is a pilot of a flying-machine heavier than air. The airplane used in my first flight (see Fig. 13) was made in Los Angeles and is the present standard army model. This tractor has an 80-horsepower engine and 8-foot propeller. It is 21 feet long, has a wing-spread of 38 feet, supporting area 364 square feet, and a flying radius, with two persons, of 300 miles. The maximum altitude attained with this model at San Diego was 13,000 feet. Before being placed in service the machines are thoroughly gone over at the repair shop (see Fig. 22), and the motors are run at full speed for twenty-four hours, after which they are taken down and subjected to scrutiny for possible defects. All of the struts, guys, and wires are closely examined; the boltheads are all drilled, wired, and soldered so that no amount of vibration will loosen them. Regardless of the length of the flight, each machine, before going up again, is given a rigid inspection and not until the mechanicians have tested every part is it pronounced ready.

Not being prepared with a regulation aviation suit, I was loaned a leather jacket by one officer, face-goggles and safety helmet by others. I then took my place in the observer’s seat forward and was strapped into it with the safety belt (see Fig. 12). I was cautioned to let my body give way as the waist-controls were moved from side to side and not pay any attention to the steering rudder wheel which had a way of mysteriously revolving, advancing and receding.

In cranking an airplane, a certain formula is always gone through. The mechanician at the propeller18 calls out, “Close!” The aviator closes the switch and repeats the word. This short-circuits the ignition apparatus so that no spark occurs in the cylinders. The propeller is turned in order to introduce explosive mixtures into the cylinders. When ready to start the mechanician says “Open!” The aviator opens the switch and repeats the word. The charges in the cylinders then fire when the propeller is turned.

After the engine starts, the machine is “trimmed” by helpers and jockeyed for a favorable “take-off” into the air. (See Figs. 14, 15.) This model of airplane climbs on a gradient 1 to 7; its minimum speed is 41 miles per hour. In other words, if the speed is less than 41 miles per hour the machine will not fly horizontally.

The Ascent.—The tractor was headed into a 30-mile northwesterly wind so that the “take-off” was quick and easy; there were only a few seconds spent rolling over the field, when the airplane left the ground and I felt the never to be forgotten cushioning feeling of the air. For ten seconds there was experienced a decidedly weakening nervous chill, which occurred to me once before when making a high dive from a spring-board. It was the sort of physiological disturbance that can only be counteracted by immediately pulling one’s self together saying, “Well, here goes nothing!” The momentary depression was immediately followed by a corresponding elation of feeling which strange to say did not leave me during the trip and is always associated with thoughts of the journey. There was no dizziness, although I am peculiarly susceptible to the least change in balance. The earth did not recede as we progressed steadily19 upward; we seemed part of the earth, but not of it. Although the airplane reached an altitude of 3,000 feet in a comparatively few minutes, the barometer falling from 30.0 to 27.0 inches, the decreased bodily pressure was not at all noticeable.H

H Trans-American Climatic Association, 1915, 31:20, Hot Springs, Va.

Next to the supporting quality of the atmosphere I had noticed the 70-mile blast of air as the airplane pushed its way steadily onward and upward. Naturally, the exhaust of the motor in addition to the roar of the wind made conversation impossible. Some airplanes have telephone communication between observer and pilot. (See Fig. 9.) During one flight in a machine not so equipped, the passenger noticed the breaking of some apparatus. Knowing that it was impossible to make himself heard he hastily scribbled the word “Accident!” on a bit of card, whereupon the pilot shut off his engine and glided to earth.

Two-thousand Feet above Point Loma.—Carrying out my suggestion as to investigating the “woolly,” the pilot drove the machine straight for Point Loma and those unseen aërial breakers. Suddenly there were two distinct “wallops” and I felt the fuselage beneath me respond as if struck by a stuffed club. There was evidently first a surge then a drop, and it was the descending current of air that deprived the airplane of the supporting medium, hence the shock. Point Loma itself, from this altitude, and seen directly from above, looked very like a barracuda’s backbone—long, low, and ugly. Although this peninsula (see Fig. 21) is less than 500 feet high it so effectively deflects the prevailing northwesterly wind that the upward surge has been noticed by aviators20 at an altitude of 4,000 feet. It is no wonder then that these descending winds, called “woollies” (from their churning the water into isolated masses which look like tufts of wool), are dreaded alike by yachtsmen and birdmen. They have been known to carry away topsails from too closely venturing schooners and student aviators always give the vicinity of Point Loma a wide berth.

No Winds Aloft.—We had not changed our direction since leaving the ground, but after passing over Point Loma the airplane was put sharply on a port course. I had been expecting this and must confess, somewhat dreaded it, innocently thinking that a 30-mile wind added to our 70-mile rate of speed would “heel” the craft to an uncomfortable angle when the course was changed from northwesterly to southerly. What was my astonishment to find that the putting about was unaccompanied by any of the nautical motions such as tilting or canting. Theoretically one may be ever so well grounded in physical laws but it seems to take actual experience to bring their truth home to us. Of course there can be no wind in the air; when we entered the air it was moving 30 miles an hour in relation to the earth but as soon as we were free from the earth the velocity of the wind had no effect on our flight. No matter how strong the gale, so far as it concerned the airplane, if the wind be steady no difficulty is experienced; the aviator is concerned only by wind-shifts.

The Velo Cloud Seen from Above.—In kindergarten days I remember that one of the first questions I asked was “Are clouds smoke?” And this early query was really first answered in the air. Fog on a mountain21 top may be cloud, but somehow cloud free from close proximity to the earth seems different.

The machine was put through the cloud blanket much as a horse takes a hurdle; it seemed unlike fog and more of a palpable substance. As we emerged, the sun was shining on it like a silvery sea with gently undulating surfaces and it looked for all the world as supportable as layers of cotton-wool. Many times have cloud-banks from mountain tops been observed, yet the upper side of the velo cloud from a flying-machine looked very different. The cloud was only four or five hundred feet thick and extended inland a few miles in irregular outline. The seaward edges of the velo cloud were not ragged, and apparently paralleled the coast for 10 or 15 miles.

Such was the exhilaration and confidence the air gave that I can understand how parachute jumpers confidently step off into space, for to them the air is a supporting medium no more terrible than a transparent sea to a good swimmer. I believe that the record parachute drop was made in 1916 by Colonel Maitland, of the English Royal Flying Corps, who descended in a parachute 10,000 feet from an airplane. Fifteen minutes was occupied in the descent.

Ease of Vision at 3,500 Feet Altitude.—At this altitude the ease of vision is most remarkable. At this height, with perpendicular vision, the eye is possessed of wonderful powers. In those “solitudes august with stars” men not only “mount up with wings as eagles” but are given the eagle’s unobstructed vision. Birds have been credited with much too keen vision. From this height of several thousand feet every object stood out with remarkable distinctness.22 Automobiles racing along the El Cajon boulevard to Lakeside were readily picked up with the unaided eye although 20 miles away. Looking down over the aviation field the long compass mark and the wind-direction pennant (Figs. 19 and 20) were easily distinguished. The bay and ocean, however, gave the most remarkable revelation, for the bottom of the bay and the shallow ocean shore were plainly discernible. The absence of water as well as air refraction explains why submarines cannot hide from an airplane: one of the army aviators told me that a submarine cannot ordinarily sink so low that it cannot be seen from an airplane.

Color of Landing-ground Important.—Owing to the absorption and reflection of sunlight, there is a distinct variation in the character of otherwise similar landing-ground. A field, dark from recent plowing (or burning), will heat the air over it faster than will a field of stubble, hence over the former field there will be the greater air disturbance, and this will affect the ease of landing. Air is heated by contact and convection. One of the aviators said that recently he was descending, and had all but reached the ground when a localized convectional current hurled his machine upward some distance but immediately afterward deposited him on the ground without damage.

Spiraling Down 3,000 Feet.—Speeding ever in wide circles the course lay southeast over the upper part of San Diego Bay. The city of San Diego presented the usual checkerboard appearance (Fig. 16), and even at this altitude it would seem easy to drop an orange at almost any point. The velo cloud was lifting and we could see the gradual disappearance23 as it melted rather than drifted from North Island. (See Fig. 17.)

The gliding descent was made from an altitude of 2,500 feet, starting above San Diego. As the aviation school was approached, we could see a number of machines in the air, three below and two above us, circling about like hawks. And, like soaring birds, these machines had their air-lanes, designated courses and levels being devoted to the different classes of machines. The landing was made without incident and the hour’s flight was ended.

Outline of Meteorological Work at the Aviation School.—At the close of the lecture detail, the attention of the student aviators was called to the importance of their having as thorough knowledge as possible of the fundamentals of meteorology. The application of these fundamentals to the analysis of air conditions met with in their daily flights was shown to be essential. Investigations as to varying wind direction were taken up by one of the staff instructors by the use of small parachutes to be dropped at different altitudes. (See Fig. 8.) Through the coöperation of the local official in charge of the San Diego Weather Bureau station, duplicate signal sheets were available from which the student officers made their local weather maps. From these maps and their own flights, they could arrive at some relationship between the actual and the theoretical 3,000- and 10,000-foot level maps prepared from the Bigelow formula, as used by the Bureau. Lectures were given on temperature and its distribution; winds, moisture, and clouds were also made part of the course, one of the papers of the BureauI being reprinted24 by the aviation school by permission of the Chief of the Bureau and used as a textbook. The Weather Bureau furnished the station with a standard set of meteorological instruments so that the student officers could become perfectly familiar with the regular equipment at the Weather Bureau stations.

I “Clouds of California,” Carpenter, 1914, 24, 2d ed., Ft. Leavenworth (U. S. Army Press).

Extending the Usefulness of the Bureau to the Aviators.—Practical utilization by the aviators of this district of the information possessed by the Bureau has received considerable impetus during the past six months. During the cross-country flights of April and May, 1916, the Los Angeles station was directed by the Chief of Bureau to furnish weather and flight conditions between San Diego and Los Angeles. With the aid of the general weather-map data from the regular stations, and special observations of wind, weather, and fog conditions on the immediate coast near Los Angeles, and on Mount Wilson, it was possible to issue satisfactory forecasts of flying conditions. The eye-observations of fog-heights as determined by the Weather Bureau coöperative station at the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory were especially valuable. From this mountain (6,000 feet elevation) it is possible on a good day to see the whole length of the coast from Point Firmin, San Pedro harbor to Point Loma, San Diego Bay. Knowing different levels, the observer at Mount Wilson was able to give actual thickness and extent of the fog-belt and its past twenty-four-hour history.

25

## CHAPTER IV
INVESTIGATING THE UPPER AIR

Balloon Soundings into the Stratosphere.—It was the writer’s privilege to be present when some highly interesting and instructive experiments made by the Weather Bureau in coöperation with the Smithsonian Institution, in sounding the upper air were made at Avalon, Santa Catalina Island, off the coast of southern California in July and August, 1913.J The results of this work were in close agreement with similar soundings of the upper air throughout other surveyed portions of the earth’s atmosphere, and a record ascension for this country was made on July 30—32,643 meters or 20½ miles. In common with other observations of temperatures in the stratosphere, the minimum temperature of these soundings (-90 F., August 3) was registered within the first 10 miles.K

J University of California Chronicle, 1915, 17:1–25, Berkeley.

K Monthly Weather Review, 1914, 42:410, Washington.

Of especial interest to the aviator is the table on the next page which shows wind velocities increasing with elevation as determined by observations of the Avalon balloons.

26

### Record of Avalon Ascents, July-August, 1913

Table showing Theodolite observations of wind velocities (meters per second)
at elevations of 1,000 and 5,000 meters

Meters | Meters per second 5 p.m. July 24 | Meters per second 5 p.m. July 27 | Meters per second 10 a.m. July 31 | Meters per second 10 a.m. Aug. 1 | Meters per second 10 a.m. Aug. 2 | Meters per second 5 p.m. Aug. 3 | Meters per second 4 p.m. Aug. 7 | Meters per second 5 p.m. Aug. 8 | Mean
1,000 | 2.5 | 1.0 | 5.6 | 6.6 | 2.3 | 5.8 | 7.1 | 1.9 | 4.1
1,500 | 6.2 | 0.8 | 6.2 | 8.1 | 3.3 | 5.0 | 6.4 | 1.5 | 4.7
2,000 | 8.0 | 1.2 | 5.8 | 7.0 | 4.1 | 4.5 | 6.5 | 6.0 | 5.4
2,500 | 10.0 | 1.8 | 10.8 | 5.7 | 5.2 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 3.6 | 5.8
3,000 | 12.0 | 2.3 | 9.4 | 6.1 | 7.2 | 5.2 | 3.5 | 4.1 | 6.2
3,500 | 12.8 | 2.5 | 8.0 | 6.7 | 7.4 | 6.1 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 6.6
4,000 | 13.6 | 3.8 | 11.2 | 7.4 | 9.2 | 5.2 | 6.4 | 3.2 | 7.5
4,500 | 14.3 | 5.2 | 14.6 | 8.5 | 11.2 | 1.8 | 7.8 | 3.0 | 8.3
5,000 | 21.2 | 6.2 | 12.8 | 10.3 | 10.4 | 2.3 |  | 3.4 | 9.5

27 Charts Showing Upper-air Weather Conditions.—It is believed that the following charts when examined in connection with the accompanying explanation in the text will give the reader something of an outline as to the conditions existing in the upper regions of the atmosphere.

28

CHART NO. 1

Horizontal Projections of the Paths of the Sounding Balloons Liberated at Avalon, California, July 23 to August 10, 1913

> Reproduced from the Monthly Weather Review, 42: 423

> This figure shows the horizontal projections as far as the balloon was observed, not the entire distance traveled until it landed.

29

CHART NO. 2

Vertical Temperature Gradient, Avalon, California, July 27, 1913

> Solid line represents the ascent of the recording apparatus, the dotted line the descent. (Verticals 25° C. or 45° F.)

Reproduced from the Monthly Weather Review, 42: 412

30

CHART NO. 3

Mean Vertical Temperature Gradient

> Figure reproduced from Monthly Weather Review, 42: 413.

> Altitude values are in kilometers at the left, and in miles at the right: Temperature values are in Centigrade at bottom, in Fahrenheit at top.

> Maximum airplane altitude 26,242 feet or 5 miles.

31

CHART NO. 4

Diagram Showing Increase of Wind with Elevation Data from Eight Meteorographs

> From the article “Free Air Data in Southern California, July and August, 1913” by Dr. Wm. R. Blair, Professor of Meteorology, in the Monthly Weather Review, for July, 1914, it is learned that the wind shifts from west to east rather abruptly at 16 to 20 km. (10 to 12 miles); below this level down to about 5 km. (3 miles) it is quite uniformly from the west. Extremes: Maximum wind velocity 21.2 miles, 5,000 meters elevation, 5 P.M., July 24; minimum wind velocity 0.8 miles, 1,500 meters elevation, 5 P.M., July 27.

> The table shows a steady increase in velocity of the wind with elevation, the data being obtained from the eight meteorographs. There were four morning flights (July 31, August 3, 7, 8) and five afternoon flights (July 24, 27, August 3, 7, 8, 1913), and elevations were computed for nine heights, 1,000 to 5,000 meters. Beyond the 5,000 meters the records show that from 2 to 7 miles altitude the wind increases at approximately the same rate that the density of the air decreases.

32

CHART NO. 5

Chart Showing Number of Flights and Duration in Hours for the Months of July to December, 1915, and January to August, 1916

> Prepared by the War Department, Signal Corps Aviation School, San Diego, California, and furnished through the courtesy of Col. W. A. Glassford, Signal Corps, U. S. Army, Commanding Officer, September 14, 1916.

33

Fig. 1. Congressional Medal Awarded Wright Brothers

(Designed by Morgan)

> This medal was awarded Orville and Wilbur Wright by resolution of Congress, March 4, 1909. Bronze replica in possession of the writer.

Photographed May 31, 1916, by permission of the Director of the Mint, Philadelphia

34

Fig. 2. Ascent of Sounding-Balloons at Avalon

Photographed July 27, 1913

> This set was liberated from the base of the U. S. Weather Bureau, Avalon, Catalina Island, California, at 4.57 P.M., July 27, 1913, and rose to a height of 23,870 meters in one hour and three quarters when one of the balloons burst and the descent began. This was observed by Carpenter at the theodolite.

35

Fig. 3. Metrograph Which Made the Ascent of July 27, 1913

Photographed August, 1913

> This meteorograph rose to a height of 23,870 meters (94,716 feet), at which height the pressure was 23 mm. (0.906 inches), temperature -52.1 C (-58 F.), relative humidity 21 per cent, wind E. (or more precisely S. 79 degrees E.), velocity 6.1 m.p.s. (14 miles per hour), but the minimum temperature was registered at 15,228 meters (49,960 feet) when the thermometer showed -64.7 C. (-85 F.), at which time the pressure was 89 mm. (3.504 inches of the barometer), relative humidity 19 per cent, wind N.W., 3.4 m.p.s. (8 miles per hour).

> The basket was picked up at sea off Oceanside, San Diego County, about 90 km. (145 miles) east of Avalon.

> For the first 6 miles of ascension the balloon moved upward at the rate of 8 miles per hour.

36

Fig. 4. First Flight of Airplane Carrying Two Persons

Photographed September 10, 1908

> This photograph was made at Fort Meyer, Virginia, of the original Wright biplane, piloted by Mr. Orville Wright With Colonel G. O. Squier, U. S. A., as first passenger.

> When this photograph was made no fatalities in airplane flight had occurred; the first victim, Lieutenant Selfridge, U. S. A., was killed while riding with Mr. Wright in the same biplane shown above, on the Tuesday following the Saturday this photograph was made, the machine falling to the ground at a spot which is practically the center of the picture, but near the trees which are part of Arlington National Cemetery.

37

Fig. 5. Mount Wilson Observatory

Photographed December 24, 1915

> A special meteorological station of the Weather Bureau was established on Mount Wilson, December 25, 1915, and on April 1, 1916, daily reports of temperature, weather, precipitation, relative humidity, fog and other conditions were first telegraphed to the local office of the Weather Bureau at Los Angeles for publication and distribution.

> The photograph shows the location of the meteorological observatory(*) and the valleys below. From the elevation of the observatory (6,000 feet above sea-level), it is possible for the observer to determine the thickness and extent of fog as it is feasible to see as far southwesterly as Point Loma on a clear day, and southerly to Santa Catalina Island. Such observations and reports have been made and forwarded without interruption to date. They have proven of incalculable value to the aviators making cross-country flights.

> The station on Mount Wilson is maintained through the coöperation of the Carnegie Institute of Washington.

38

Fig. 6. Type of Airplane Used in 1911 on North Island

Photographed October, 1911

> This photograph of Mr. Glenn Curtiss in his “pusher” airplane was made shortly after the Curtiss School of Flying was established in 1911, on North Island. At his right is Local Forecaster Carpenter.

> Comparison of this machine, which four years ago was the last word in airplanes, with the tractor shown on the opposite page, indicates the rapid progress in design.

39

Fig. 7. Discussing a Flight

Photographed October 18, 1915

> Aviation Instructor Oscar Brindley discussing a flight with Captain Clarke, U. S. A., and other officers at the U. S. Aviation School at San Diego.

> Mr. Brindley is standing by the side of Captain Clarke in the group at the right. After every flight the Instructor reviews, point by point, the features of the flight, showing the pupil his deficiencies and explaining how he may avoid them in the future.

> The officer at the left, Lieutenant Brown, has the regulation leather leggings, coat and helmet, and is ready to go up as soon as the mechanicians (who may be seen at the extreme left) finish inspection and pronounce the airplane fit for the next flight.

40

Fig. 8. Captain Culver and Parachute

Photographed October 21, 1915

> Captain C. C. Culver, U. S. Cavalry, Adjutant, Aviation School, with a parachute in his hand, having word with Captain L. W. Patterson, U. S. A., before the latter’s flight. The object of the parachute is to determine changing wind-direction at different heights.

> The airplane wireless record is now held by Captain Culver. In October, 1916, he sent a message 119 miles from Santa Monica to San Diego, California, while flying at an altitude of 1½ miles. He received a radio message from a distance of 11 miles while flying 7,000 feet aloft. He is also the first military aviator to rig up two airplanes so that they could exchange messages while in flight. The radio set used weighed less than forty-five pounds.

41

Fig. 9. Lieutenant Gorrell, U. S. Infantry, As Observer

Photographed October, 1915

> The noise of the motor, together with the terrific blast of air, makes conversation impossible between the pilot and observer; for that reason telephones are sometimes installed as noted in this photograph.

> Lieut. Edgar S. Gorrell is shown as the observer in this photograph. He has since qualified as an aviator and made a brilliant record in the Mexican activities in 1916.

42

Fig. 10. Point Loma from the Eastern Shore of North Island

Photographed October, 1915

> The peninsula of Point Loma rises to an elevation approximating 500 feet, and as it lies approximately north and south, it interposes a considerable barrier to the prevailing westerly winds. The eastern side of Point Loma is very precipitous. These factors tend to produce winds called “woollies” which are a distinct menace to all small boats and air-craft, unless the air-craft have an elevation exceeding 3,000 feet on a normal windy day.

43

Fig. 11. San Diego, across Spanish Bight, as Seen from the U. S. Aviation School at Twilight

Photographed October, 1915

> Contrasted with the photograph of Point Loma on the opposite page, this picture shows the ideal water conditions for trying out seaplanes. Shortly before this picture was taken, one of the pilots of the Curtiss Aviation School, also on North Island drove a big seaplane 100 miles per hour barely skimming the surface of the water.

44

Fig. 12. Instructor Brindley and Meteorologist Carpenter in Military Tractor No. 50

Photographed October 20, 1915

> Instructor Oscar Brindley and the observer, Meteorologist Ford A. Carpenter, U. S. Weather Bureau, leaving the ground for a flight. In the military tractor used generally by the Army, the observer sits forward while the pilot occupies the after cockpit. This machine, like all others used in the military service, has dual control.

45

Fig. 13. Military Tractor No. 50. Type of Biplane Used in U. S. Army Service Made by Glenn Martin, Los Angeles, Cal.

Photographed October, 1915

Motor, horsepower, 80: revolutions per minute, 1,277.
Diameter of propeller, 8 feet.
Load of 39 gallons gasoline, 2½ gallons oil.
Flying radius with normal equipment, two persons, 300 miles.
Maximum altitude obtained with this model at San Diego, 13,000 feet.
Wing-spread, tip to tip, upper, 38 feet, 10 inches; lower, 34 feet, 10 inches.
Supporting area, upper, 139 square feet; lower, 165 square feet; total, 364 square feet.
Length of fuselage from rear of propeller hub, 21 feet, 6¾ inches.
Data from Major F. P. Lahm, Signal Corps, U. S. A.
Dated May 9, 1916.

46

Fig. 14. “Trimming” a Tractor in Leaving the Ground

Photographed October, 1915

> Military Tractor No. 50 just before leaving the ground. In gusty weather the mechanicians steady the ends of the lower planes, sometimes turning it by holding one edge and pushing the other. In the photograph the mechanicians are giving the airplane steerageway to the right.

47

Fig. 15. Military Tractor No. 50 Just Leaving the Ground

Photographed October, 1915

> Before attempting to leave the ground there is always considerable jockeying for a favorable head-wind, and the photograph shows Instructor Brindley maneuvering for a favorable pointing.

> After leaving the ground, the wind, so long as it is not gusty, makes no difference to the pilot.

48

Fig. 16. San Diego Harbor at Over 2,000 Feet Altitude

Photographed October, 1915

> The new municipal wharves are in the middle foreground and to their right may be seen the Santa Fé station. Part of North Island is obscured by cloud.

49

Fig. 17. Thirty-five Hundred Feet Above San Diego

Photographed October, 1915

> This photograph was made 1,000 feet above the clouds. The wharves of San Diego and Coronado may be seen in the foreground and in the middle distance.

50

Fig. 18. Military Tractor No. 50 at 3,500 Feet Altitude

Photographed October 20, 1915

> The airplane, in which the pilot, Oscar Brindley and the observer, Meteorologist Carpenter, made their flight, was photographed at the maximum elevation, 3,500 feet above the aviation field.

51

Fig. 19. Flying Squad’s Wind-Direction Pennant on Tower

Photographed October 5, 1915

> The regular observation tower from which all observations and notes on every flight are made is just back of the headquarters building. The station anemometer is on the tower, and the portable anemometer is to the left.

52

Fig. 20. The Aviation School Motor-Boat “Pronto”

Photographed October, 1915

> During the flying periods, the motor-boat of the U. S. Aviation School is kept ready for instant service in order to work in conjunction, if needs be, with the Medical Corps emergency truck on land.

> Such is the speed of this boat (exceeding 40 miles per hour) that the water no longer has resiliency, and it is about as comfortable as riding in an old-fashioned stone-boat over rocky pastures.

53

Fig. 21. U. S. Aviation Field at Three Thousand Feet Altitude

Photographed October, 1915

> Part of Coronado and the portion of land called North Island, separated by Spanish Bight. Point Loma may be seen at the extreme upper right-hand corner of the photograph. The flying-machine sheds, buildings of the Aviation School, etc., may be seen in the immediate foreground. The U. S. Cavalry camp is the white splotch in the center foreground.

54

Fig. 22. Repair Shop U. S. Aviation School, San Diego, Cal.

Photographed October, 1915

> In the repair shop of the U. S. Aviation School at North Island the motors are given a gruelling test, being run twenty-four consecutive hours at a speed greater than that given them in actual practice. After this run they are taken down and each part is spread out on a large drawing-table and is subjected to close scrutiny so as to show any defect. Several airplanes as well as seaplanes have been reconstructed in this shop.

## Transcriber’s Note

Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected.

Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AVIATOR AND THE WEATHER BUREAU ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE

## THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

> This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

- • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
- • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
- • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
- • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.